Wine

From EncycloWine

Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented juice of grapes. [1] Although other fruits such as apples, berries and blackcurrants are also fermented, their wines are normally named after the fruit (for example, "apple wine" or "elderberry wine") and are generically known as fruit wine. Others, such as barley wine and rice wine (sake) are made from starch-based materials and bear more resemblance to beers, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these cases, the use of the term 'wine' is a reference to the higher alcohol content, rather than production process. [2] The commercial use of the English word wine (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Production 3.1 Wine exporting countries 4 Grape varieties 5 Classification 5.1 By vinification methods 5.2 By taste 5.3 By vintage 5.4 By price 5.4.1 Premium wines 5.4.2 Cheap wines 5.4.3 Rating scales 6 Names 6.1 Regional wine names 7 Food and wine 8 Wine based drinks 9 Religious uses 10 Health effects 11 Packaging 12 Professions 13 Film and television 14 See also 15 Sources 16 External links

Etymology

The word wine derives from the Proto-Germanic *winam, an early borrowing from the Latin vinum, "wine" or "(grape) vine", itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem *win-o- (cf. Ancient Greek οῖνος oînos). [3] Similar words for wine or grape are found in the Semitic languages (cf. Arabic ﻭﻳﻦ wayn) and in Georgian (gvino), and the term is considered an ancient wanderwort. [4]

History

Main article: History of wine

The earliest evidence of wine production comes from archaeological sites in Georgia and Iran, dating from 6000 to 5000 BC. [5] [6] [7] The archaeological evidence becomes clearer, and points to domestication of grapevine, in Early Bronze Age sites of the Near East, Sumer, and Egypt from around the third millennium BC. [8] In Egypt, wine became a part of recorded history, playing an important role in ancient ceremonial life.

Wine was common in classical Greece and Rome. [9] Dionysus was the Greek god of wine and revelry, and wine was frequently referred to in the works of Homer and Aesop. Many of the major wine-producing regions of Western Europe today were established by the Romans. Winemaking technology improved considerably during the time of the Roman Empire. Many grape varieties and cultivation techniques were known. Barrels were developed for storing and shipping wine.

In medieval Europe, the Christian Church was a staunch supporter of wine which was necessary for the celebration of the Catholic Mass. In places such as Germany, beer was banned and considered pagan and barbaric while wine consumption was viewed as civilized and a sign of conversion.

Production

Main articles: Wine-producing countries and Wine-producing regions

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty degrees north or south of the equator. The world's most southerly vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel. [10] However, the world's most northerly vineyard is Blaxsta Vingård [11] in Flen, Sweden, just above the 59th parallel. [12] As a rule, grapevines prefer a relatively long growing season of 100 days or more with warm daytime temperatures (no greater than 95°F/35°C) and cool nights (a difference of 40°F/23°C or more).

Wine production by country 2005

Rank	Country	Production (tonnes)
1	France	5,329,449
2	Italy	5,056,648
3	Spain	3,934,140
4	United States of America	2,232,000
5	Argentina	1,564,000
6	China	1,300,000
7	Australia	1,274,000
8	South Africa	1,157,895
9	Germany	1,014,700
10	Chile	788,551

Wine exporting countries

The 14 largest export nations as of 2005 were: France, Italy, Spain, Australia, Chile, United States of America, Germany, South Africa, Portugal, Romania, Moldova, Hungary, Croatia and Argentina. California produces about 90% of the wine in the United States. In 2000, England imported more wine from Australia than from France for the first time in history.

The leaders in export volume by market share in 2003 were:

• France, 22%
• Italy, 20%
• Spain, 16%
• Australia, 8%
• Chile, 6%
• United States, 5%
• Portugal, 4%
• Germany, 4%
• Slovenia, 3%
• Bulgaria, 2%

Grape varieties

Main article: Grape varieties

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species Vitis vinifera. When one of these varieties, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, or Merlot, for example, is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is a varietal, as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way inferior to varietal wines; indeed, some of the world's most valued and expensive wines from the Bordeaux, Rioja or Tuscany regions, are a blend of several grape varieties of the same vintage.

Wine can also be made from other species or from hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of two species. Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis muscadinia, Vitis rupestris, Vitis rotundifolia and Vitis riparia are native North American grapes, usually grown for eating in fruit form or made into grape juice, jam, or jelly, but sometimes made into wine, eg. Concord wine (Vitis labrusca species). Although generally prohibited by law in traditional wine regions, hybrids are planted in substantial numbers in cool-climate viticultural areas.

Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species rootstock. This is common practice because North American grape species are resistant to phylloxera. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the World except for Chile and Argentina, which have yet to be exposed to the bug.

The variety of grape(s), aspect (direction of slope), elevation, and topography of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, the climate and seasonal conditions under which grapes are grown, the local yeast cultures altogether form the concept of "terroir". The range of possibilities lead to great variety among wine products, which is extended by the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes. Many small producers use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.

However, flavor differences are not desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency is more important. These producers will try to minimize differences in sources of grapes and hide any hint of often-unremarkable "terroirs", or of climatically under-performing harvest years, by:

• blending harvests of various years and vineyards;
• pasteurizing the grape juice in order to kill indigenous yeasts (to be replaced with "choice" cultivated yeasts); and
• using flavor additives.

Classification

By vinification methods

Wines may be classified by vinification methods. These include classifications such as sparkling, still, fortified, rosé, and blush. The color of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the grape skin during fermentation. Grapes with colored juice, for example Alicante Bouchet, are known as teinturiers. Red wine is made from red (or black) grapes, but its red color is bestowed by a process called maceration, whereby the skin is left in contact with the juice during fermentation. White wine can be made from any color of grape as the skin is separated from the juice during fermentation. A white wine made from a very dark grape may appear pink or 'blush'. A form of Rosé is called Blanc de Noir where the juice of red grapes are allowed contact with the skins for a very short time (usually only a couple of hours).

Sparkling wines, such as Champagne, are those with carbon dioxide, either from fermentation or added later. They vary from just a slight bubbliness to the classic Champagne. To have this effect, the wine is fermented twice, once in an open container to allow the carbon dioxide to escape into the air, and a second time in a sealed container, where the gas is caught and remains in the wine. Sparkling wines that gain their carbonation from the traditional method of bottle fermentation are called Méthode Champenoise. Other international denominations of sparkling wine include Sekt or Schaumwein (Germany), Cava (Spain), Spumante or Prosecco (Italy). In most countries except the United States, Champagne is legally defined as sparkling wine originating from a region in France.

Fortified wines are often sweeter, and generally more alcoholic wines that have had their fermentation process stopped by the addition of a spirit, such as brandy. By this process wines are produced with a greater amount of residual sugar. Fortified wines such as Port or Sauternes are traditionally drunk at the end of a meal.

Brandy is a distilled wine. Grappa is a dry colorless brandy, distilled from fermented grape pomace, the pulpy residue of grapes, stems and seeds that were pressed for the winemaking process.

By taste

Main article: Wine tasting

Wines may be classified by their primary impression on the drinker's palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar.

Specific flavors may be sensed, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules such as esters and terpenes, that grape juice and wine contains. Tasters will also distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape (e.g., Cabernet Sauvignon and blackcurrant) and flavors that are imparted by other factors in winemaking, either intentional or not. The most typical intentional flavor elements in wine are those that are imparted by aging in oak casks, and virtually every element of chocolate, vanilla, or coffee are actually a factor of oak and not the native grape. Banana flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as sweaty, barnyard, band-aid, (4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol) [13] and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide). [14]

Wine aroma is the result of the interaction between components of the grapes and those produced during winemaking process, fermentation and aging. [15] Being served at room temperature increases the vaporization of aroma compounds, making the wine more aromatic. For some red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais, the volatility of the wine makes it better served chilled.

By vintage

Main article: Vintage

Wines may be classified by the year in which the grapes are harvested, known as the "vintage". Vintage wines are made from grapes of a single year's harvest, and are accordingly dated as such. Some wines can improve in flavor as they age, and wine enthusiasts will occasionally save bottles of an especially good vintage wine for future consumption.

Most countries allow a vintage wine to include a portion of wine that is not from the labeled vintage. In Chile and South Africa, the requirement is 75 percent. In Australia, New Zealand, and the member states of the European Union the requirement is 85 percent. In the United States the requirement is 95 percent same-year content for vintage-dated wine. [16] In theory, the 95 percent rule in the United States applies equally to foreign imports, but there are obvious challenges in enforcing the regulation.

For some types of wine, the best-quality grapes and the most care in winemaking are employed on vintage wines and they are therefore more expensive than non-vintage wines. Whilst vintage wines are generally made in a single batch so that each and every bottle will have a similar taste, climatic factors can have a dramatic impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality. Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Non-vintage wines, however, are blended from a number of vintages for consistency, a process which allows winemakers to keep a reliable market image and also maintain sales even in bad vintage years.

Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage wines are only made in better-than-average years. Conversely, wines such as White Zinfandel, which don't age well, are made to be drunk immediately and may not be labeled with a vintage year. There are exceptions though. French Champagne is often non-vintage, but still expensive. It can sometimes profit from aging 2-3 years and some Prestige Cuvées even much longer.

There is some disagreement and research [17] about the significance of vintage year to wine quality.

By price

Premium wines

At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are amongst the most expensive of all foodstuffs, and outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Red wines, at least partly because of their ability to form more complex subtleties, are typically more expensive. Some of the most expensive come from Bordeaux and Burgundy. However, some white dessert wines like German trockenbeerenauslese or French Sauternes for example, cost hundreds of dollars for a half bottle. Such premium wines are often at their best years or even decades after bottling. On the other hand, they may spoil after such long storage periods, unbeknownst to the drinker about to open the bottle. Part of the expense associated with high-end wine comes from the number of bottles which must be discarded in order to produce a drinkable wine. Restaurants will often charge between two and five times the price of what a wine merchant may ask for an exceptional vintage. This is for a reason: diners will often return wines that have spoiled and not bear the expense. For restaurateurs, serving old vintages is a risk that is compensated through elevated prices. Some high-end wines are Veblen goods, desirable because they are expensive.

Exclusive wines come from all the best winemaking regions of the world. Secondary markets for these wines have consequently developed, as well as specialized facilities for post-purchase storage for people who either collect or "invest" in wine. The most common wines purchased for investment are Bordeaux, California cult wines and Port. The importance of the secondary wine market has led the rise of so-called "supercritics", most notably Robert M. Parker, Jr. The shift towards a perceived single-scale of wine analysis (the 100-point scale, or similar) has caused some traditionalists to claim that this process encourages a reduction in variety, as winemakers world-wide try to produce the allegedly single style of wine that will find favor with the critics and the many consumers who are influenced by their evaluations. The rise, in the late 1990's, of wines produced by the garagistes in Bordeaux, and the heavily tannic, highly fruit-driven wines of the New World, especially in California, Washington State, Australia and New Zealand, all selling for prices above that of the first growths, appear to reflect the influence of wine critics and changing wine tastes. (The first growths were classified by the French government in 1855 as the four best (i.e., most expensive) wines in Bordeaux. A fifth was added in 1973 after decades of lobbying by its owner.

Investment in fine wine has attracted a number of fraudsters who play on fine wine's exclusive image and their clients' ignorance of this sector of the wine market. Wine fraud scams often work by charging excessively high prices for the wine, while representing that it is a sound investment unaffected by economic cycles. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing. False labeling is another dishonest practice commonly used.

Some wines, produced to mark significant events in a country or region, can also become collectible because of labelling design. An example is the Mildara Rhine Riesling produced in 1973 to mark the opening of the Sydney Opera House. Instead of labels, the bottles (red, as well as white) had printing in gold on them, as seen in the illustration.

Cheap wines

At the lower end of the quality spectrum, jug wines, box wines, and cooking wines are usually sold cheaply and in large quantities. Cleanskin wine is a type of cheap wine, of ever-increasing popularity in Australia, whose label does not feature the winery or the winemaker's name. Cleanskin wine is not necessarily of low quality, and over-produced premium wines are often sold as cleanskins (mainly on online auctions) rather than turned into vinegar.

Rating scales

There are several numerical wine rating scales in use today. The most widely used scale is by Robert Parker, a 100-point wine rating scale, which actually starts at 50 (lowest quality) and goes up to 100 (highest).

Names

Wines are usually named either by their grape variety or by their place of production. Generally speaking, Old World (European) wines are named for the place of production, with the grapes used often not appearing on the label. New World wines (those from everywhere except Europe and North Africa) are generally named for the grape variety. More and more, however, market recognition of particular regions and wineries is leading to their increased prominence on New World wine labels. Examples of recognized locales include: Napa Valley, Barossa Valley, Russian River Valley, Willamette Valley, Cafayate, Marlborough, Walla Walla, etc. Still, though, the grape variety is almost invariably present on the label. This is not the case with most European wines because of tradition and legal restrictions.

Within Europe, a major exception to the no-grape rule is with German wines and wines from the Alsace region of France, for which it is not uncommon to find this information on the front label. To accommodate market demands, an increasing number of French winemakers are labeling their bottles with the variety or varieties of grapes included, as permitted by law.

Regional wine names

The taste of a wine depends not only on the grape species and varietal blend, but also on the ground and climate (known as terroir) where it is cultivated. Historically, wines have been known by names reflecting their origin, and sometimes style: Bordeaux, Rioja, Mosel and Chianti are all legally defined names, reflecting the traditional wines produced in the named region. These naming conventions or "appellations" (as they are known in France) dictate not only where the grapes in a wine were grown, but also which grapes went into the wine and how they were vinified. The appellation system is strongest in the European Union, but a related system, the American Viticultural Area, restricts the use of certain regional labels in America, such as Napa Valley, Santa Barbara and Willamette Valley. The AVA designations do not restrict the type of grape used. [18] New World wines are known primarily by their varietal content, and not by their region.

Historical European designations are inconsistently applied in the United States. For example, in most of the world, wine labeled Champagne must be made from grapes grown in the Champagne region of France and fermented using a certain method, based on the international trademark agreements included in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. However, in the United States, there exists a legal definition called semi-generic that enables U.S. winemakers to use certain generic terms (Champagne, Hock, Sherry, etc.) if there appears next to the term the actual appellation of origin in order to prevent any possible confusion. [19]

Generally only the most inexpensive, mass-produced wines (or vin ordinaire) make use of these place names as semi-generic wine names; most of those now use the more popular varietal labeling. For example, makers of American sparkling wines now generally find it to be of no advantage in the marketplace to use the name "Champagne" because the quality of their products is widely recognized. Thus, the finest sparkling wines from California will be labeled "sparkling wine", while some less expensive sparkling wines from California as well as states such as Ohio and New York may bear such names as "Ohio Champagne" or "New York State Champagne". Some European producers protest the practice for fear that it causes loss of sales.

Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names is governed by trademark or copyright law, rather than a specific wine law or a patent on the actual varietal blend or process used to achieve it. For example, Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, and may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec. Use of the term Meritage is protected by licensing agreements by The Meritage Association.

Food and wine

Main article: Food and wine pairing

Wine is a popular and important beverage that accompanies and enhances a wide range of European and Mediterranean-style cuisines, from the simple and traditional to the most sophisticated and complex. Red, white and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are also known as light wines, because they only contain approximately 10-14% alcohol. The apéritif and dessert wines contain 14-20% alcohol, and are fortified to make them richer and sweeter than the light wines. Although there are many classes of dinner wines, they can be categorized under six specific classes as follows:

• Apéritif (or better known as "appetizer wines"): include dry sherry, Madeira, Vermouth, and other flavored wines, made to be consumed before eating a meal.
• Red dinner wines: These wines are usually dry and go extremely well with such main-course dishes as red meats, spaghetti, and highly-seasoned foods. They should be served at a cool room temperature to bring out their aroma. The most popular red dinner wines are claret, Burgundy, Chianti, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Pink dinner wines (also called "rosé wines"), a special class of red wines, can be served with almost any dish, but are considered best with cold meats, pork, and curries.
• White dinner wines: Can be very dry to rather sweet, these wines should be served chilled, and go well with white meats, seafood, and fowl. They include Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Chardonnay and Riesling.
• Sparkling wines: Usually served at any meal with any course, these wines are most frequently served at banquets, formal dinners and weddings. Sparkling wines can be white, pink (rosé), or red. The best known sparkling wines come from the Champagne region in France. Sparkling wines from Spain are called Cava, and in Germany they are called Sekt. Although often served throughout a meal, sparkling wines do not generally pair well with main meals, and should be served as an apéritif or with certain entrées.
• Table wine: Table wine is not bubbly, although some have a very slight carbonation, the amount of which is not enough to disqualify them as table wines. According to U.S. standards of identity, table wines may have an alcohol content that is no higher than 14%. In Europe, light wine must be within 8.5% and 14% alcohol by volume. As such, unless a wine has more than 14% alcohol, or it has bubbles, it is a table wine or a light wine. In reality, in those regions where grapes ripen fully, such as Califonia's hot Central Valley, a large portion of new-world red wines have between 14 and 15.5% alcohol, yet are still certainly 'table wines' in the practical sense.
• Dessert wines: Ranging from medium-sweet to very sweet, these wines are sometimes served with desserts, or they can act as replacements for desserts. Among these are port wine, sweet sherry, Tokay, Sauternes and muscatel.
• Cooking wines: Typically containing a significant quantity of salt, cooking wine is wine of such poor quality that it is unpalatable and intended for use only in cooking. (Note, however, that most cooking authorities advise against cooking with any wine one would find unacceptable to drink.)

The labels on certain bottles of wine suggest that they need to be set aside for an hour before drinking to "breathe", while other wines are recommended to be drunk as soon as they are opened. "Breathing" means allowing a wine to aerate before drinking. Generally, younger wines benefit from some aeration, while older wines do not. The word, "younger", refers to the first one third of a wine’s life, which varies from wine type to wine type and from wine to wine. For most white wines, "younger" means up to one to two years, while for red wines, they could mean as little as a few months for a Beaujolais Nouveau, up to ten years for a hearty Barossa Valley Shiraz. "Older", on the other hand, refers to the last one third of their lives.

Decanting is a controversial subject in wine. In addition to aeration, decanting removes some of the bitter sediments from the bottle. Sediment is more common in older bottles but younger wines benefit more from the aeration. During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes" the flavors and makes them taste smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Wines that are older generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration. Breathing, however, does not benefit all wines, and should not therefore be taken to the extreme. In general, wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it should be aerated, if at all. It should then be tasted every 15 minutes until the wine is, according to individual preference, ready to drink. As a general rule, younger white wines normally require no more than 15-30 minutes of aeration while younger red wines should be no more than 30-60 minutes. If in doubt, it is better to err on the side of too little aeration than too much. Note that 'aerating' a wine involves more than removal of the cork. For aeration to provide any benefit whatsoever, the wine must be decanted.

Wine based drinks

Main article: Cocktails made with wine

• Brandy: A general term for distilled wine which has been aged for at least 2 years.
• Calimocho: A cheap alcoholic drink, comprising 50% red wine and 50% cola drink.
• Mulled wine (known in Scandinavia as Glögg and in Germany as Glühwein): A red wine, combined with spices, and usually served hot.
• Sangría: A wine punch, comprising red wine, chopped fruits, sugar, and a small amount of brandy or other spirits.
• Spritzer: A tall, chilled drink, usually made of white wine and soda water.
• Wine cooler: An alcoholic beverage made from wine and fruit juice, often in combination with a carbonated beverage and sugar.
• Zurracapote: A popular Spanish alcoholic drink comprised mainly of red wine, spirit, fruit juice, sugar and cinnamon.
• Rebujito: Manzanilla wine mixed with a soft drink like Sprite or 7 Up.

Religious uses

See also: Kosher wine, Christianity and alcohol, and Islam and alcohol

The use of wine in religious ceremonies is common to many cultures and regions. Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus are usually thought to have used wine as an entheogen.

Wine plays an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service. The Kiddush, a blessing said prior to eating on the Sabbath and other holidays, is required to be said over wine. On Pesach (Passover) during the seder it is also required to drink four cups of wine. [20] In American Jewish practice it is common to use a kosher wine made from Concord grapes, though the wine produced is not popular outside Jewish liturgical circles; it has become increasingly common to use higher-quality kosher wines (often grown and made in Israel) at the Passover table. Kosher laws regarding wine and other grape-derivitives are more extensive and restrictive than for any other food or drink because only wine or grape juice can be used for sacramental purposes.

In Christian services wine is used in a sacred ritual called Communion or the Eucharist, which originates in Gospel accounts of the Last Supper when Jesus blesses the bread and wine and commands his followers to "do this in remembrance of me." Wine was used in the rite by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in 1869 when Methodist minister-turned-dentist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape juice. Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and there remains an ongoing debate between some American Protestant denominations as to whether wine can or should be used in moderation for the Eucharist or for merriment. Outside the United States, most Protestant groups use wine.

The use of wine is forbidden under Islam. Iran used to have a thriving wine industry that disappeared after the Islamic revolution in 1979. [21]

Health effects

See also: Alcohol consumption and health

The health effects of wine (and alcohol in general) are the subject of considerable ongoing study. [22] In the USA, a boom in red wine consumption was initiated in the 1990s by '60 Minutes', and other news reports on the French paradox. The French paradox refers to the lower incidence of coronary heart disease in France than in the USA despite high levels of saturated fat in the traditional French diet. Epidemiologists suspect that this difference is attributed to the high consumption of wines by the French, however this suspicion is based on limited scientific evidence.

A series of population studies have observed a J curve association between wine consumption and the risk of heart disease. This means that abstainers and heavy drinkers have an elevated risk, whilst moderate drinkers have a lower risk. Population studies have also found that moderate consumption of other alcoholic beverages may be cardioprotective, though the association is considerably stronger for wine. These studies have found a protective effect from both red wine as well as white wine, though evidence from laboratory studies suggests that red wine may posess superior health benefits.

A chemical called resveratrol is thought to be at least partly responsible for red wines health benefits, as it has been shown to exert a range of both cardioprotective as well as chemoprotective mechanisms in animal studies. [23] Resveratrol is produced naturally by grape skins in response to fungal infection, which includes exposure to yeast during fermentation. As white wine has minimal contact with grape skins during this process, it generally contains lower levels of resveratrol. [24] Other beneficial compounds in wine include other polyphenols, antioxidants, and flavonoids. [25]

Whilst evidence from both laboratory studies as well as epidemiology (observational studies) suggests wines cardioprotective effect, no evidence from controlled experiments or "intervention studies" currently exists to determine the specific effect of wine or other alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Moreover, excessive consumption of alcohol including wine can cause some diseases including cirrhosis of the liver and alcoholism. [26] Also the American Heart Association recommends that people not start drinking if they do not already drink alcohol just to gain the benefits that wine provides. [27]

Packaging

See also: Wine bottle, Wine label, Cork, and Alternative wine closures

Most wines are sold in glass bottles and are sealed using a cork. Recently there has been an increase in the number of wines being sealed with alternative closures such as a screwcap.

Professions

• Cooper: Someone who makes wooden barrels, casks, and other similar wooden objects.
• Négociant: A wine merchant who assembles the produce of smaller growers and winemakers, and sells them under his own name.
• Vintner: A wine merchant or producer.
• Sommelier: A person in a restaurant who specializes in wine. They are usually in charge of assembling the wine list, staff education and making wine suggestions to customers.
• Winemaker: A person who makes wine.
• Oenologist: A wine scientist or wine chemist. A winemaker may be trained as oenologist, but often instead uses a consultant oenologist.
• Viticulturist: A person who specializes in the science of the grapevines themselves. Can also be someone who manages a vineyard (decides how to prune, how much to irrigate, how to deal with pests, etc.)

Film and television

• A Good Year, 2006. Ridley Scott directs Russell Crowe in an adaptation of Peter Mayle's novel.
• Mondovino, USA/France 2004: A documentary film directed by American film maker, Jonathan Nossiter, explaining the impact of globalization on the various wine-producing regions.
• Sideways, 2004: A comedy/drama film, directed by Alexander Payne, with the tagline: "In search of wine. In search of women. In search of themselves." Wine, particularly Pinot Noir, plays a central role.
• A Walk in the Clouds 1995, is a love story set in a traditional vineyard showcasing different moments in the production of wine.
• French Kiss, 1995. Meg Ryan and Kevin Kline act in this romantic comedy. Kline's character wants to have his own vineyard since he comes from a family of winemakers. The character has even made his own aroma sampling kit.
• Falcon Crest, USA 1981-1990: A CBS primetime soap opera about the fictional Falcon Crest winery and the family who owned it, set in the fictional Tuscany Valley of California. The series was very popular and a wine named Falcon Crest even went on the market.

See also

• Wine terms
• Wine-producing regions
• Wine competitions
• Wine tasting

Sources

• Daniel Zohary, Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of plants in the Old World, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198503563. Authoritative source on evolution and domestication of the grapevine.
• Paul T. Nicholson and I. Shaw (2000). Ancient Egyptian materials and technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521452570. Grapes and wine in ancient Egypt; includes critique of chemical evidence for wine residues.
• George M. Taber, Judgment of Paris: California vs. France and the Historic 1976 Paris Tasting the Revolutionized Wine. NY: Scribner, 2005.
• Jancis Robinson (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Wine. ISBN 019866236X
• Ed McCarthy, Mary Ewing-Mulligan, Piero Antinori, Wine for Dummies. ISBN 0764525441
• Hugh Johnson, Hugh Johnson's Wine Companion. The Encyclopaedia of Wines, Vineyards and Winemakers, Mitchell Beazley 2003, 5th edition
• Stuart Pigott, A Grape by Grape Visual Guide to the Contemporary Wine World. (Mitchell Beazley)
• Dean Edell, M.D.. Eat, Drink and be Merry: America’s Doctor Tells You Why the Health Experts are Wrong. NY: HarperCollins, 1999, pp. 191-192.
• Christopher Foulkes (Ed.), Larousse Encyclopedia of Wine. Larousse, 2001. ISBN 2035850134
• R. Phillips. A Short History of Wine Harper Collins, 2000. ISBN 0060937378

External links

• A brief history in wine
• The Origins and Ancient History of Wine University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology
• World's Earliest Wine
• End of the vine
• Winery Directory